std::memory_order(3)

NAME
std::memory_order - std::memory_order

Synopsis
   Defined in header <atomic>
   typedef enum memory_order {
       memory_order_relaxed,
       memory_order_consume,
       memory_order_acquire, (since C++11)
       memory_order_release, (until C++20)
       memory_order_acq_rel,
       memory_order_seq_cst
   } memory_order;
   enum class memory_order : /* unspecified */ {
       relaxed, consume, acquire, release, acq_rel, seq_cst
   };
   inline constexpr memory_order memory_order_relaxed =
   memory_order::relaxed;
   inline constexpr memory_order memory_order_consume =
   memory_order::consume;
   inline constexpr memory_order memory_order_acquire = (since C++20)
   memory_order::acquire;
   inline constexpr memory_order memory_order_release =
   memory_order::release;
   inline constexpr memory_order memory_order_acq_rel =
   memory_order::acq_rel;
   inline constexpr memory_order memory_order_seq_cst =
   memory_order::seq_cst;
   std::memory_order specifies how memory accesses, including regular, non-atomic
   memory accesses, are to be ordered around an atomic operation. Absent any
   constraints on a multi-core system, when multiple threads simultaneously read and
   write to several variables, one thread can observe the values change in an order
   different from the order another thread wrote them. Indeed, the apparent order of
   changes can even differ among multiple reader threads. Some similar effects can
   occur even on uniprocessor systems due to compiler transformations allowed by the
   memory model.
   The default behavior of all atomic operations in the library provides for
   sequentially consistent ordering (see discussion below). That default can hurt
   performance, but the library's atomic operations can be given an additional
   std::memory_order argument to specify the exact constraints, beyond atomicity, that
   the compiler and processor must enforce for that operation.

Constants
   Defined in header <atomic>
   Value Explanation
                        Relaxed operation: there are no synchronization or ordering
   memory_order_relaxed constraints imposed on other reads or writes, only this
                        operation's atomicity is guaranteed (see Relaxed ordering
                        below).
                        A load operation with this memory order performs a consume
                        operation on the affected memory location: no reads or writes
                        in the current thread dependent on the value currently loaded
   memory_order_consume can be reordered before this load. Writes to data-dependent
                        variables in other threads that release the same atomic
                        variable are visible in the current thread. On most platforms,
                        this affects compiler optimizations only (see Release-Consume
                        ordering below).
                        A load operation with this memory order performs the acquire
                        operation on the affected memory location: no reads or writes
   memory_order_acquire in the current thread can be reordered before this load. All
                        writes in other threads that release the same atomic variable
                        are visible in the current thread (see Release-Acquire ordering
                        below).
                        A store operation with this memory order performs the release
                        operation: no reads or writes in the current thread can be
                        reordered after this store. All writes in the current thread
   memory_order_release are visible in other threads that acquire the same atomic
                        variable (see Release-Acquire ordering below) and writes that
                        carry a dependency into the atomic variable become visible in
                        other threads that consume the same atomic (see Release-Consume
                        ordering below).
                        A read-modify-write operation with this memory order is both an
                        acquire operation and a release operation. No memory reads or
                        writes in the current thread can be reordered before the load,
   memory_order_acq_rel nor after the store. All writes in other threads that release
                        the same atomic variable are visible before the modification
                        and the modification is visible in other threads that acquire
                        the same atomic variable.
                        A load operation with this memory order performs an acquire
                        operation, a store performs a release operation, and
   memory_order_seq_cst read-modify-write performs both an acquire operation and a
                        release operation, plus a single total order exists in which
                        all threads observe all modifications in the same order (see
                        Sequentially-consistent ordering below).

Formal description
   Inter-thread synchronization and memory ordering determine how evaluations and side
   effects of expressions are ordered between different threads of execution. They are
   defined in the following terms:

Sequenced-before
   Within the same thread, evaluation A may be sequenced-before evaluation B, as
   described in evaluation order.

Carries dependency
   Within the same thread, evaluation A that is sequenced-before evaluation B may also
   carry a dependency into B (that is, B depends on A), if any of the following is
   true:
   1) The value of A is used as an operand of B, except
   a) if B is a call to std::kill_dependency,
   b) if A is the left operand of the built-in &&, ||, ?:, or , operators.
   2) A writes to a scalar object M, B reads from M.
   3) A carries dependency into another evaluation X, and X carries dependency into B.

Modification order
   All modifications to any particular atomic variable occur in a total order that is
   specific to this one atomic variable.
   The following four requirements are guaranteed for all atomic operations:
   1) Write-write coherence: If evaluation A that modifies some atomic M (a write)
   happens-before evaluation B that modifies M, then A appears earlier than B in the
   modification order of M.
   2) Read-read coherence: if a value computation A of some atomic M (a read)
   happens-before a value computation B on M, and if the value of A comes from a write
   X on M, then the value of B is either the value stored by X, or the value stored by
   a side effect Y on M that appears later than X in the modification order of M.
   3) Read-write coherence: if a value computation A of some atomic M (a read)
   happens-before an operation B on M (a write), then the value of A comes from a
   side-effect (a write) X that appears earlier than B in the modification order of M.
   4) Write-read coherence: if a side effect (a write) X on an atomic object M
   happens-before a value computation (a read) B of M, then the evaluation B shall take
   its value from X or from a side effect Y that follows X in the modification order of
   M.

Release sequence
   After a release operation A is performed on an atomic object M, the longest
   continuous subsequence of the modification order of M that consists of:
   1) Writes performed by the same thread that performed A. (until C++20)
   2) Atomic read-modify-write operations made to M by any thread.
   Is known as release sequence headed by A.
     Synchronizes with
   If an atomic store in thread A is a release operation, an atomic load in thread B
   from the same variable is an acquire operation, and the load in thread B reads a
   value written by the store in thread A, then the store in thread A synchronizes-with
   the load in thread B.
   Also, some library calls may be defined to synchronize-with other library calls on
   other threads.

Dependency-ordered before
   Between threads, evaluation A is dependency-ordered before evaluation B if any of
   the following is true:
   1) A performs a release operation on some atomic M, and, in a different thread, B
   performs a consume operation on the same atomic M, and B reads a value written
   by any part of the release sequence headed
   (until C++20) by A.
   2) A is dependency-ordered before X and X carries a dependency into B.

Inter-thread happens-before
   Between threads, evaluation A inter-thread happens before evaluation B if any of the
   following is true:
   1) A synchronizes-with B.
   2) A is dependency-ordered before B.
   3) A synchronizes-with some evaluation X, and X is sequenced-before B.
   4) A is sequenced-before some evaluation X, and X inter-thread happens-before B.
   5) A inter-thread happens-before some evaluation X, and X inter-thread
   happens-before B.

Happens-before
   Regardless of threads, evaluation A happens-before evaluation B if any of the
   following is true:
   1) A is sequenced-before B.
   2) A inter-thread happens before B.
   The implementation is required to ensure that the happens-before relation is
   acyclic, by introducing additional synchronization if necessary (it can only be
   necessary if a consume operation is involved, see Batty et al).
   If one evaluation modifies a memory location, and the other reads or modifies the
   same memory location, and if at least one of the evaluations is not an atomic
   operation, the behavior of the program is undefined (the program has a data race)
   unless there exists a happens-before relationship between these two evaluations.
       Simply happens-before
   Regardless of threads, evaluation A simply happens-before evaluation B
   if any of the following is true:
   1) A is sequenced-before B. (since C++20)
   2) A synchronizes-with B.
   3) A simply happens-before X, and X simply happens-before B.
   Note: without consume operations, simply happens-before and
   happens-before relations are the same.
     Strongly happens-before
   Regardless of threads, evaluation A strongly happens-before evaluation B if any of
   the following is true:
   1) A is sequenced-before B.
   2) A synchronizes-with B. (until C++20)
   3) A strongly happens-before X, and X strongly happens-before B.
   1) A is sequenced-before B.
   2) A synchronizes with B, and both A and B are sequentially consistent
   atomic operations.
   3) A is sequenced-before X, X simply happens-before Y, and Y is
   sequenced-before B.
   4) A strongly happens-before X, and X strongly happens-before B. (since C++20)
   Note: informally, if A strongly happens-before B, then A appears to be
   evaluated before B in all contexts.
   Note: strongly happens-before excludes consume operations.

Visible side-effects
   The side-effect A on a scalar M (a write) is visible with respect to value
   computation B on M (a read) if both of the following are true:
   1) A happens-before B.
   2) There is no other side effect X to M where A happens-before X and X
   happens-before B.
   If side-effect A is visible with respect to the value computation B, then the
   longest contiguous subset of the side-effects to M, in modification order, where B
   does not happen-before it is known as the visible sequence of side-effects (the
   value of M, determined by B, will be the value stored by one of these side effects).
   Note: inter-thread synchronization boils down to preventing data races (by
   establishing happens-before relationships) and defining which side effects become
   visible under what conditions.

Consume operation
   Atomic load with memory_order_consume or stronger is a consume operation. Note that
   std::atomic_thread_fence imposes stronger synchronization requirements than a
   consume operation.

Acquire operation
   Atomic load with memory_order_acquire or stronger is an acquire operation. The
   lock() operation on a Mutex is also an acquire operation. Note that
   std::atomic_thread_fence imposes stronger synchronization requirements than an
   acquire operation.

Release operation
   Atomic store with memory_order_release or stronger is a release operation. The
   unlock() operation on a Mutex is also a release operation. Note that
   std::atomic_thread_fence imposes stronger synchronization requirements than a
   release operation.

Explanation

Relaxed ordering
   Atomic operations tagged memory_order_relaxed are not synchronization operations;
   they do not impose an order among concurrent memory accesses. They only guarantee
   atomicity and modification order consistency.
   For example, with x and y initially zero,
 // Thread 1:
 r1 = y.load(std::memory_order_relaxed); // A
 x.store(r1, std::memory_order_relaxed); // B
 // Thread 2:
 r2 = x.load(std::memory_order_relaxed); // C
 y.store(42, std::memory_order_relaxed); // D
   is allowed to produce r1 == r2 == 42 because, although A is sequenced-before B
   within thread 1 and C is sequenced before D within thread 2, nothing prevents D from
   appearing before A in the modification order of y, and B from appearing before C in
   the modification order of x. The side-effect of D on y could be visible to the load
   A in thread 1 while the side effect of B on x could be visible to the load C in
   thread 2. In particular, this may occur if D is completed before C in thread 2,
   either due to compiler reordering or at runtime.
   Even with relaxed memory model, out-of-thin-air values are not allowed to
   circularly depend on their own computations, for example, with x and y
   initially zero,
   // Thread 1:
   r1 = y.load(std::memory_order_relaxed);
   if (r1 == 42) x.store(r1, std::memory_order_relaxed); (since
   // Thread 2: C++14)
   r2 = x.load(std::memory_order_relaxed);
   if (r2 == 42) y.store(42, std::memory_order_relaxed);
   is not allowed to produce r1 == r2 == 42 since the store of 42 to y is only
   possible if the store to x stores 42, which circularly depends on the store
   to y storing 42. Note that until C++14, this was technically allowed by the
   specification, but not recommended for implementors.
   Typical use for relaxed memory ordering is incrementing counters, such as the
   reference counters of std::shared_ptr, since this only requires atomicity, but not
   ordering or synchronization (note that decrementing the shared_ptr counters requires
   acquire-release synchronization with the destructor). // Run this code
 #include <atomic>
 #include <iostream>
 #include <thread>
 #include <vector>
 std::atomic<int> cnt = {0};
 void f()
 {
     for (int n = 0; n < 1000; ++n)
         cnt.fetch_add(1, std::memory_order_relaxed);
 }
 int main()
 {
     std::vector<std::thread> v;
     for (int n = 0; n < 10; ++n)
         v.emplace_back(f);
     for (auto& t : v)
         t.join();
     std::cout << "Final counter value is " << cnt << '\n';
 }

Output:
 Final counter value is 10000

Release-Acquire ordering
   If an atomic store in thread A is tagged memory_order_release, an atomic load in
   thread B from the same variable is tagged memory_order_acquire, and the load in
   thread B reads a value written by the store in thread A, then the store in thread A
   synchronizes-with the load in thread B.
   All memory writes (including non-atomic and relaxed atomic) that happened-before the
   atomic store from the point of view of thread A, become visible side-effects in
   thread B. That is, once the atomic load is completed, thread B is guaranteed to see
   everything thread A wrote to memory. This promise only holds if B actually returns
   the value that A stored, or a value from later in the release sequence.
   The synchronization is established only between the threads releasing and acquiring
   the same atomic variable. Other threads can see different order of memory accesses
   than either or both of the synchronized threads.
   On strongly-ordered systems — x86, SPARC TSO, IBM mainframe, etc. — release-acquire
   ordering is automatic for the majority of operations. No additional CPU instructions
   are issued for this synchronization mode; only certain compiler optimizations are
   affected (e.g., the compiler is prohibited from moving non-atomic stores past the
   atomic store-release or performing non-atomic loads earlier than the atomic
   load-acquire). On weakly-ordered systems (ARM, Itanium, PowerPC), special CPU load
   or memory fence instructions are used.
   Mutual exclusion locks, such as std::mutex or atomic spinlock, are an example of
   release-acquire synchronization: when the lock is released by thread A and acquired
   by thread B, everything that took place in the critical section (before the release)
   in the context of thread A has to be visible to thread B (after the acquire) which
   is executing the same critical section. // Run this code
 #include <atomic>
 #include <cassert>
 #include <string>
 #include <thread>
 std::atomic<std::string*> ptr;
 int data;
 void producer()
 {
     std::string* p = new std::string("Hello");
     data = 42;
     ptr.store(p, std::memory_order_release);
 }
 void consumer()
 {
     std::string* p2;
     while (!(p2 = ptr.load(std::memory_order_acquire)))
         ;
     assert(*p2 == "Hello"); // never fires
     assert(data == 42); // never fires
 }
 int main()
 {
     std::thread t1(producer);
     std::thread t2(consumer);
     t1.join(); t2.join();
 }
   The following example demonstrates transitive release-acquire ordering across three
   threads, using a release sequence. // Run this code
 #include <atomic>
 #include <cassert>
 #include <thread>
 #include <vector>
 std::vector<int> data;
 std::atomic<int> flag = {0};
 void thread_1()
 {
     data.push_back(42);
     flag.store(1, std::memory_order_release);
 }
 void thread_2()
 {
     int expected = 1;
     // memory_order_relaxed is okay because this is an RMW,
     // and RMWs (with any ordering) following a release form a release sequence
     while (!flag.compare_exchange_strong(expected, 2, std::memory_order_relaxed))
     {
         expected = 1;
     }
 }
 void thread_3()
 {
     while (flag.load(std::memory_order_acquire) < 2)
         ;
     // if we read the value 2 from the atomic flag, we see 42 in the vector
     assert(data.at(0) == 42); // will never fire
 }
 int main()
 {
     std::thread a(thread_1);
     std::thread b(thread_2);
     std::thread c(thread_3);
     a.join(); b.join(); c.join();
 }

Release-Consume ordering
   If an atomic store in thread A is tagged memory_order_release, an atomic load in
   thread B from the same variable is tagged memory_order_consume, and the load in
   thread B reads a value written by the store in thread A, then the store in thread A
   is dependency-ordered before the load in thread B.
   All memory writes (non-atomic and relaxed atomic) that happened-before the atomic
   store from the point of view of thread A, become visible side-effects within those
   operations in thread B into which the load operation carries dependency, that is,
   once the atomic load is completed, those operators and functions in thread B that
   use the value obtained from the load are guaranteed to see what thread A wrote to
   memory.
   The synchronization is established only between the threads releasing and consuming
   the same atomic variable. Other threads can see different order of memory accesses
   than either or both of the synchronized threads.
   On all mainstream CPUs other than DEC Alpha, dependency ordering is automatic, no
   additional CPU instructions are issued for this synchronization mode, only certain
   compiler optimizations are affected (e.g. the compiler is prohibited from performing
   speculative loads on the objects that are involved in the dependency chain).
   Typical use cases for this ordering involve read access to rarely written concurrent
   data structures (routing tables, configuration, security policies, firewall rules,
   etc) and publisher-subscriber situations with pointer-mediated publication, that is,
   when the producer publishes a pointer through which the consumer can access
   information: there is no need to make everything else the producer wrote to memory
   visible to the consumer (which may be an expensive operation on weakly-ordered
   architectures). An example of such scenario is rcu_dereference.
   See also std::kill_dependency and [[carries_dependency]] for fine-grained dependency
   chain control.
   Note that currently (2/2015) no known production compilers track dependency chains:
   consume operations are lifted to acquire operations.
   The specification of release-consume ordering is being revised, and (since C++17)
   the use of memory_order_consume is temporarily discouraged.
   This example demonstrates dependency-ordered synchronization for pointer-mediated
   publication: the integer data is not related to the pointer to string by a
   data-dependency relationship, thus its value is undefined in the consumer. // Run this code
 #include <atomic>
 #include <cassert>
 #include <string>
 #include <thread>
 std::atomic<std::string*> ptr;
 int data;
 void producer()
 {
     std::string* p = new std::string("Hello");
     data = 42;
     ptr.store(p, std::memory_order_release);
 }
 void consumer()
 {
     std::string* p2;
     while (!(p2 = ptr.load(std::memory_order_consume)))
         ;
     assert(*p2 == "Hello"); // never fires: *p2 carries dependency from ptr
     assert(data == 42); // may or may not fire: data does not carry dependency from ptr
 }
 int main()
 {
     std::thread t1(producer);
     std::thread t2(consumer);
     t1.join(); t2.join();
 }

Sequentially-consistent ordering
   Atomic operations tagged memory_order_seq_cst not only order memory the same way as
   release/acquire ordering (everything that happened-before a store in one thread
   becomes a visible side effect in the thread that did a load), but also establish a
   single total modification order of all atomic operations that are so tagged.
   Formally,
   each memory_order_seq_cst operation B that loads from atomic variable M,
   observes one of the following:
     * the result of the last operation A that modified M, which appears before
       B in the single total order,
     * OR, if there was such an A, B may observe the result of some modification
       on M that is not memory_order_seq_cst and does not happen-before A,
     * OR, if there wasn't such an A, B may observe the result of some unrelated
       modification of M that is not memory_order_seq_cst.
   If there was a memory_order_seq_cst std::atomic_thread_fence operation X
   sequenced-before B, then B observes one of the following:
     * the last memory_order_seq_cst modification of M that appears before X in
       the single total order,
     * some unrelated modification of M that appears later in M's modification
       order.
   For a pair of atomic operations on M called A and B, where A writes and B
   reads M's value, if there are two memory_order_seq_cst
   std::atomic_thread_fences X and Y, and if A is sequenced-before X, Y is
   sequenced-before B, and X appears before Y in the Single Total Order, then B (until
   observes either: C++20)
     * the effect of A,
     * some unrelated modification of M that appears after A in M's modification
       order.
   For a pair of atomic modifications of M called A and B, B occurs after A in
   M's modification order if
     * there is a memory_order_seq_cst std::atomic_thread_fence X such that A is
       sequenced-before X and X appears before B in the Single Total Order,
     * or, there is a memory_order_seq_cst std::atomic_thread_fence Y such that
       Y is sequenced-before B and A appears before Y in the Single Total Order,
     * or, there are memory_order_seq_cst std::atomic_thread_fences X and Y such
       that A is sequenced-before X, Y is sequenced-before B, and X appears
       before Y in the Single Total Order.
   Note that this means that:
   1) as soon as atomic operations that are not tagged memory_order_seq_cst
   enter the picture, the sequential consistency is lost,
   2) the sequentially-consistent fences are only establishing total ordering
   for the fences themselves, not for the atomic operations in the general case
   (sequenced-before is not a cross-thread relationship, unlike happens-before).
   Formally,
   an atomic operation A on some atomic object M is coherence-ordered-before
   another atomic operation B on M if any of the following is true:
   1) A is a modification, and B reads the value stored by A,
   2) A precedes B in the modification order of M,
   3) A reads the value stored by an atomic modification X, X precedes B in the
   modification order, and A and B are not the same atomic read-modify-write
   operation,
   4) A is coherence-ordered-before X, and X is coherence-ordered-before B.
   There is a single total order S on all memory_order_seq_cst operations,
   including fences, that satisfies the following constraints:
   1) if A and B are memory_order_seq_cst operations, and A strongly
   happens-before B, then A precedes B in S,
   2) for every pair of atomic operations A and B on an object M, where A is
   coherence-ordered-before B:
   a) if A and B are both memory_order_seq_cst operations, then A precedes B in
   S,
   b) if A is a memory_order_seq_cst operation, and B happens-before a
   memory_order_seq_cst fence Y, then A precedes Y in S,
   c) if a memory_order_seq_cst fence X happens-before A, and B is a
   memory_order_seq_cst operation, then X precedes B in S,
   d) if a memory_order_seq_cst fence X happens-before A, and B happens-before a
   memory_order_seq_cst fence Y, then X precedes Y in S.
   The formal definition ensures that:
   1) the single total order is consistent with the modification order of any
   atomic object,
   2) a memory_order_seq_cst load gets its value either from the last (since
   memory_order_seq_cst modification, or from some non-memory_order_seq_cst C++20)
   modification that does not happen-before preceding memory_order_seq_cst
   modifications.
   The single total order might not be consistent with happens-before. This
   allows more efficient implementation of memory_order_acquire and
   memory_order_release on some CPUs. It can produce surprising results when
   memory_order_acquire and memory_order_release are mixed with
   memory_order_seq_cst.
   For example, with x and y initially zero,
   // Thread 1:
   x.store(1, std::memory_order_seq_cst); // A
   y.store(1, std::memory_order_release); // B
   // Thread 2:
   r1 = y.fetch_add(1, std::memory_order_seq_cst); // C
   r2 = y.load(std::memory_order_relaxed); // D
   // Thread 3:
   y.store(3, std::memory_order_seq_cst); // E
   r3 = x.load(std::memory_order_seq_cst); // F
   is allowed to produce r1 == 1 && r2 == 3 && r3 == 0, where A happens-before
   C, but C precedes A in the single total order C-E-F-A of memory_order_seq_cst
   (see Lahav et al).
   Note that:
   1) as soon as atomic operations that are not tagged memory_order_seq_cst
   enter the picture, the sequential consistency guarantee for the program is
   lost,
   2) in many cases, memory_order_seq_cst atomic operations are reorderable with
   respect to other atomic operations performed by the same thread.
   Sequential ordering may be necessary for multiple producer-multiple consumer
   situations where all consumers must observe the actions of all producers occurring
   in the same order.
   Total sequential ordering requires a full memory fence CPU instruction on all
   multi-core systems. This may become a performance bottleneck since it forces the
   affected memory accesses to propagate to every core.
   This example demonstrates a situation where sequential ordering is necessary. Any
   other ordering may trigger the assert because it would be possible for the threads c
   and d to observe changes to the atomics x and y in opposite order. // Run this code
 #include <atomic>
 #include <cassert>
 #include <thread>
 std::atomic<bool> x = {false};
 std::atomic<bool> y = {false};
 std::atomic<int> z = {0};
 void write_x()
 {
     x.store(true, std::memory_order_seq_cst);
 }
 void write_y()
 {
     y.store(true, std::memory_order_seq_cst);
 }
 void read_x_then_y()
 {
     while (!x.load(std::memory_order_seq_cst))
         ;
     if (y.load(std::memory_order_seq_cst))
         ++z;
 }
 void read_y_then_x()
 {
     while (!y.load(std::memory_order_seq_cst))
         ;
     if (x.load(std::memory_order_seq_cst))
         ++z;
 }
 int main()
 {
     std::thread a(write_x);
     std::thread b(write_y);
     std::thread c(read_x_then_y);
     std::thread d(read_y_then_x);
     a.join(); b.join(); c.join(); d.join();
     assert(z.load() != 0); // will never happen
 }

Relationship with volatile
   Within a thread of execution, accesses (reads and writes) through volatile glvalues
   cannot be reordered past observable side-effects (including other volatile accesses)
   that are sequenced-before or sequenced-after within the same thread, but this order
   is not guaranteed to be observed by another thread, since volatile access does not
   establish inter-thread synchronization.
   In addition, volatile accesses are not atomic (concurrent read and write is a data
   race) and do not order memory (non-volatile memory accesses may be freely reordered
   around the volatile access).
   One notable exception is Visual Studio, where, with default settings, every volatile
   write has release semantics and every volatile read has acquire semantics (Microsoft
   Docs), and thus volatiles may be used for inter-thread synchronization. Standard
   volatile semantics are not applicable to multithreaded programming, although they
   are sufficient for e.g. communication with a std::signal handler that runs in the
   same thread when applied to sig_atomic_t variables.

See also
   C documentation for
   memory order

External links
   1. MOESI protocol
   2. x86-TSO: A Rigorous and Usable Programmer’s Model for x86 Multiprocessors P.
       Sewell et. al., 2010
   3. A Tutorial Introduction to the ARM and POWER Relaxed Memory Models P. Sewell et
       al, 2012
   4. MESIF: A Two-Hop Cache Coherency Protocol for Point-to-Point Interconnects J.R.
       Goodman, H.H.J. Hum, 2009
   5. Memory Models Russ Cox, 2021
    This section is incomplete
    Reason: Let's find good refs on QPI, MOESI, and maybe Dragon.

Category:
     * Todo with reason